Varanasi History: Varanasi. Kashi. Benares. By any of its sacred names, this city is not merely a location on a map of India; it is a living, breathing, pulsating chronicle of human civilization, spirituality, and resilience. To walk through the labyrinthine alleys of Varanasi is to traverse a timeline that stretches back into the primordial mists of time. The very air is thick with the whispers of millennia—chants from Vedic seers, the philosophical discourses of the Buddha, the rhythmic clang of Mughal hammers, and the eternal flow of the Ganga. The history of Varanasi is not a linear sequence of events but a rich, layered tapestry woven with threads of myth, faith, invasion, and rebirth. This article is your ultimate guide, a deep dive into the 5,000-year epic that is the history of Varanasi, exploring its legendary origins, its golden ages, its trials, and its enduring legacy as the spiritual capital of India.
Chapter 1: The Dawn of Time – Mythological Origins and the Name ‘Kashi’
Long before recorded history, Varanasi existed in the realm of the sacred. Its history is inextricably linked with Hindu cosmology, making it one of the world’s oldest continually inhabited cities and undoubtedly its oldest living spiritual center.
The Legend of Lord Shiva’s Abode
According to Hindu mythology, Varanasi was founded by Lord Shiva, the god of destruction and regeneration, around 5,000 years ago. The legend states that after his marriage to Goddess Parvati, Shiva chose a tract of land on the banks of the Ganga as his eternal home. This land was Avimukta—the never-forsaken—a place he would never leave.
The city is thus considered the terrestrial home of Shiva and Parvati. It is believed that the first Jyotirlinga, the pillar of light symbolizing Shiva’s infinite nature, manifested here. This divine origin story is the bedrock upon which the entire spiritual significance of Varanasi rests. For devotees, to be in Varanasi is to be in the direct presence of Shiva.
The Name ‘Kashi’: The Luminous City
The ancient and most revered name for Varanasi is Kashi. Derived from the Sanskrit root ‘kas’, meaning “to shine,” Kashi translates to “The Luminous One” or “The City of Light.” This luminosity is not of the physical kind but refers to the spiritual light of wisdom, knowledge, and liberation (Moksha). Kashi is seen as a beacon that dispels the darkness of ignorance, a place where the ultimate knowledge of the self and the universe can be attained.
The Name ‘Varanasi’: The City Between Two Rivers
The name Varanasi has a more geographical origin. It is derived from its position between two rivers: the Varuna flowing to the north and the Assi to the south, which now meets the Ganga in the southern part of the city. Thus, the land “Varan-asi” literally means the tract of land between the Varuna and the Assi. This name is believed to have come into common usage later, though it is now the official name.
The Name ‘Benares’: A Colonial Legacy
Benares is an Anglicized distortion of the name. It is believed to have evolved from “Banaras,” which itself is a Pali and colloquial version of “Varanasi.” During the British colonial era, “Benares” became the standard name in English records and maps, a name that held sway until India’s independence when the city was officially renamed Varanasi.
This multiplicity of names itself tells a story—of deep spiritual roots (Kashi), geographical identity (Varanasi), and colonial influence (Benares).
Chapter 2: The Cradle of Philosophy – Varanasi in Ancient India (c. 1500 BCE – 600 BCE)
Moving from mythology to traceable history, Varanasi emerges as a dominant center of learning, culture, and political power in ancient India.
Varanasi in the Vedic Texts
The earliest literary references to Varanasi are found in the ancient Hindu scriptures, the Vedas. In the Rigveda, the oldest of the Vedas (composed around 1500 BCE), the city is mentioned as Kashi or Kāsī in the context of a rich and powerful kingdom. The Atharvaveda also lauds Kashi as a great center of spiritual and intellectual pursuits. These references confirm that by the Vedic period, Varanasi was already a well-established and revered city-state, the capital of the Kingdom of Kashi.
The Kingdom of Kashi and its Rivalries
The Kingdom of Kashi was one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas (great realms) that existed in the Indian subcontinent during the 6th century BCE. It was a prosperous and powerful monarchy, often engaged in territorial conflicts with its neighboring kingdoms, particularly Kosala, Magadha, and Anga.
The Jatakas (Buddhist tales about the previous lives of the Buddha) are replete with stories set in Varanasi, then the capital of Kashi. They depict a city of immense wealth, with bustling markets, grand palaces, and a vibrant cultural life. The rivalry with King Pasenadi (Prasenajit) of Kosala is a recurring theme, highlighting the political dynamics of the era.
The Rise of Shramana Movements: Buddha and Mahavira
The 6th century BCE was a period of intense intellectual and spiritual ferment in India. The orthodox Vedic religion was being questioned, leading to the rise of the Shramana movements—ascetic traditions that sought spiritual truth through discipline and renunciation. Varanasi, as the premier city of learning, naturally became a crucible for these new philosophies.
Gautama Buddha’s First Sermon
Around 528 BCE, a pivotal event in world history occurred just a few kilometers from Varanasi at Sarnath (then known as Isipatana). After attaining enlightenment in Bodh Gaya, Gautama Buddha traveled to Sarnath and delivered his first sermon, known as “Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta” (Setting in Motion the Wheel of Dhamma). This event marked the formal beginning of the Buddhist Sangha (community) and the religion of Buddhism.
Sarnath, a suburb of Varanasi, thus became one of the four most sacred pilgrimage sites for Buddhists worldwide. The Ashoka Pillar and the Dhamek Stupa stand today as powerful testaments to this era.
Lord Mahavira in Varanasi
Varanasi is also significantly associated with Lord Mahavira, the 24th and last Tirthankara of Jainism. It is believed that Mahavira, a contemporary of the Buddha, spent several rainy seasons in and around Varanasi. The city and its region are mentioned in Jain texts as a major center for his teachings. In fact, Parshvanatha, the 23rd Tirthankara, is said to have been born in Varanasi itself. The Jain tradition holds Varanasi with deep reverence, further cementing its status as a nexus for diverse spiritual paths.
This period established Varanasi not just as a Hindu stronghold, but as a universal center for spiritual inquiry, a place where the fundamental questions of life and death were explored with unparalleled depth.
Chapter 3: The Age of Empires – Mauryas, Guptas, and the Golden Era (c. 3rd Century BCE – 6th Century CE)
With the rise of India’s first great empires, Varanasi’s importance continued to grow, transitioning through different phases of political control while maintaining its spiritual supremacy.
The Mauryan Empire and Emperor Ashoka
The Mauryan Empire, under the rule of Emperor Ashoka (268–232 BCE), incorporated the region of Varanasi. Initially known for his brutality, Ashoka underwent a profound transformation after the bloody Kalinga War and embraced Buddhism.
His impact on Varanasi and Sarnath was monumental. To commemorate the Buddha’s first sermon, Ashoka built magnificent stupas and monasteries at Sarnath. He erected the famous Ashoka Pillar, topped with the four-lion capital, which today serves as the National Emblem of India. The inscriptions on the pillar edicts spread the message of Dhamma. While Ashoka promoted Buddhism, he was a patron of all religions, and Varanasi’s Hindu traditions also continued to flourish under his reign.
The Golden Age of the Guptas
The Gupta Empire (c. 320–550 CE) is often referred to as the “Golden Age of India” for its unparalleled achievements in science, mathematics, astronomy, literature, and art. Under the Guptas, Varanasi experienced a tremendous renaissance.
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Religious Patronage: The Gupta kings, though devout Hindus (particularly of Lord Vishnu), were known for their religious tolerance. They commissioned the construction of some of the earliest and most magnificent Hindu temples in Varanasi. While these original structures have not survived, literary sources from the time, such as the works of poet Kalidasa, describe a city adorned with splendid temples.
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Center of Learning: Varanasi solidified its position as the subcontinent’s premier center for learning. Its ghatikas (centers of learning) attracted scholars and students from all over India and beyond. Studies in Sanskrit grammar, philosophy, law, and the arts reached their zenith during this period.
The Chinese traveler Faxian (Fa-Hien), who visited India during the reign of Chandragupta II, visited Varanasi and Sarnath around 400 CE. He recorded the existence of a thriving Buddhist community and two large stupas in Sarnath, confirming the city’s continued importance as a Buddhist hub.
Chapter 4: Trials by Fire – The Sultanate Period and Temple Destruction (c. 12th – 16th Century)
The idyllic golden age was followed by a period of immense turmoil that would test the very fabric of Varanasi. The arrival of Muslim rulers in North India marked a dark and destructive chapter in the city’s history.
The Raid of Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1194 CE)
The first major Islamic invasion of Varanasi came in 1194 CE by the forces of Qutb-ud-din Aibak, the general of Muhammad Ghori. The contemporary Persian historian Hasan Nizami, in his Taj-ul-Ma’asir, graphically describes the event: “The slaughter of the Hindus [at Varanasi] was immense; none were spared except women and children… the manhood of the Hindus being humbled, the temples of Benares were converted into mosques.”
This raid resulted in the widespread destruction of temples, including the famed Kashi Vishwanath Temple (the Golden Temple), dedicated to Lord Shiva. The city’s libraries and universities were burned, leading to an incalculable loss of knowledge. The political and cultural heart of Varanasi was dealt a devastating blow.
The Reign of the Delhi Sultanate
For the next three centuries, under the rule of the various dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate (Slave, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, and Lodi), Varanasi existed in a state of subdued resilience. While temple destruction and the imposition of the Jizya tax on non-Muslims were common, the city never lost its spiritual significance. The faith of the people went underground, and worship continued in smaller, less conspicuous shrines. The city’s economy, particularly its world-renowned silk weaving industry, managed to survive, patronized by both Hindu and Muslim elites.
This period was not solely defined by conflict. There were also phases of syncretism. The Sufi tradition found a home here, and mystical poets like Kabir (15th century) emerged from Varanasi, preaching a message that transcended the boundaries of both Hinduism and Islam.
Chapter 5: The Mughal Era – A Tapestry of Conflict and Creation (c. 16th – 18th Century)
The Mughal era in Varanasi was a complex and paradoxical period, characterized by both further destruction and remarkable reconstruction.
Akbar the Great: A Policy of Tolerance
The reign of Emperor Akbar (1556–1605) brought a period of relative peace and revival for Varanasi. His policy of religious tolerance (Sulh-i-Kul) led to the remission of the Jizya tax and allowed Hindus to freely practice their religion. He even provided funds and grants for the rebuilding of some Hindu temples, including the Kashi Vishwanath.
The city saw a resurgence in its scholarly reputation. Akbar’s courtier, Abdul Fazl, wrote in the Ain-i-Akbari that Varanasi was “a city which, in the learning of the sciences of the Hindus, has no equal in India.” The city became a major center for Sanskrit scholarship, attracting patronage from Rajput kings and Mughal nobles alike.
Aurangzeb and the Final Destruction
This period of tolerance was brutally reversed under the reign of the orthodox Emperor Aurangzeb (1658–1707). In 1669, he issued a general order for the destruction of Hindu schools and temples. The most catastrophic blow to Varanasi came when he ordered the demolition of the newly rebuilt Kashi Vishwanath Temple and the construction of the Gyanvapi Mosque on its foundations, using the plinth and some materials from the destroyed temple.
The Gyanvapi complex, which stands to this day adjacent to the current Kashi Vishwanath Temple, remains a poignant and contentious symbol of this destructive era. Despite this, the spirit of Varanasi could not be crushed. The Lingam of Shiva was secretly moved and hidden, and worship continued in nearby locations.
Cultural and Architectural Synthesis
Despite the religious persecution, the Mughal era also left behind a legacy of architectural and cultural fusion. The city’s iconic Ramnagar Fort, across the Ganga from the main ghats, was built in the 18th century by Kashi Naresh (the King of Kashi) Balwant Singh in a Mughal style. The intricate brocades of Banarasi silk sarees, for which the city is famous, flourished under Mughal patronage, incorporating Persian motifs like florals and intricate jaals (nets) into their designs.
Chapter 6: The Colonial Interlude – Benares under the British Raj (c. 18th – 20th Century)
The decline of the Mughal Empire paved the way for the rise of the British East India Company, marking the beginning of a new, transformative chapter.
The Treaty of Benares and British Control
After the Battle of Buxar in 1764, the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II granted the Diwani (revenue collection rights) of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa to the British. In 1775, the Treaty of Benares was signed between the British Governor-General Warren Hastings and the Nawab of Awadh, which effectively placed the city of Benares under British protection and control, although the local ruler, the Kashi Naresh, retained his title and a degree of autonomy.
The Uprising of 1857 and its Aftermath
Varanasi was a significant center during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 against British rule. The Kashi Naresh, Maharaja Ishwari Prasad Narayan Singh, was initially sympathetic to the rebels, though he later sided with the British. The rebellion was brutally suppressed in the region.
In the aftermath, the British consolidated their power. They established a modern administrative system, built railways (the Mughal Sarai junction near Varanasi became one of the largest in India), and set up educational institutions like the Benares Hindu University (BHU).
The Foundation of Benares Hindu University (BHU)
Founded in 1916 by Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, BHU was a landmark event in the history of Varanasi. It was envisioned as a center for the revival of Hindu and Indian culture alongside modern scientific education. It became a nursery for the Indian independence movement and remains one of Asia’s largest residential universities, a modern incarnation of Varanasi’s ancient role as a center of learning.
Chapter 7: The Modern Metropolis – Varanasi in Independent India
Post-1947, Varanasi became a part of the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It has continued to grow as a city, grappling with the challenges of modernity while fiercely protecting its ancient heritage.
The Kashi Vishwanath Corridor: A New Dawn
A monumental project in the city’s recent history is the Shri Kashi Vishwanath Corridor, inaugurated in 2021. This project aimed to decongest and beautify the area around the Kashi Vishwanath Temple, creating a massive corridor that connects the temple directly to the Ganga river. It has facilitated the movement of pilgrims and revitalized the temple precinct, symbolizing a renaissance of Varanasi’s spiritual grandeur in the 21st century.
Varanasi as a Parliamentary Constituency
The political significance of Varanasi has grown immensely in recent decades. It is the parliamentary constituency of the current Prime Minister of India, Narendra Modi, since 2014. This has brought unprecedented national and international attention, along with increased investment in the city’s infrastructure and development projects.
Chapter 8: The Living Legacy – Ghats, Culture, and the Eternal Ganga
To understand Varanasi’s history is to experience its living culture, which is most vividly manifested in its ghats and traditions.
The Ghats of Varanasi: Stairways to Eternity
The 88 ghats that line the western bank of the Ganga are the spiritual and social epicenter of Varanasi. Each ghat has its own history, legend, and purpose.
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Dashashwamedh Ghat: The main and most spectacular ghat, believed to be where Lord Brahma performed the Dasha Ashwamedha (ten-horse) sacrifice. It is famous for the daily Ganga Aarti, a mesmerizing fire ritual that draws thousands.
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Manikarnika Ghat: The primary cremation ghat. For Hindus, to be cremated here is to achieve Moksha, liberation from the cycle of rebirth. The eternal pyres here are a powerful, sobering reminder of the city’s core philosophy: the acceptance of death as a part of life.
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Assi Ghat: The southernmost ghat, at the confluence of the Ganga and Assi rivers. It is a popular, vibrant ghat, especially with pilgrims and the younger generation, who gather at dawn for the morning aarti.
The Banarasi Silk Saree and Other Crafts
The Banarasi Silk Saree is a timeless symbol of Indian craftsmanship, with a history woven over centuries. Recognized by a Geographical Indication (GI) tag, these sarees are known for their gold and silver brocade (zari), intricate designs, and premium quality silk. The weaving communities, many of whom are Muslims, have been the custodians of this art for generations, representing the city’s syncretic culture.
Other crafts include wooden toys, brassware, and Rudraksha beads, all contributing to the city’s rich artisanal heritage.
Music, Cuisine, and the Arts
Varanasi is the birthplace of many legendary Indian classical musicians, including Pandit Ravi Shankar (sitar) and Ustad Bismillah Khan (shehnai). The city’s air is filled with the sound of music, from formal concerts to impromptu riyaz (practice) sessions in old havelis. The Benaras Gharana (stylistic school) of music and dance is renowned.
The cuisine is a delight, from the morning staple of kachori-sabzi and jalebi to the famous Banarasi Paan (betel leaf preparation).
Conclusion: The Timeless City
The history of Varanasi is a microcosm of Indian history itself—a story of glorious creation, devastating destruction, and phoenix-like rebirth. It has been a capital of kings, a crucible of philosophies, a target of iconoclasts, a hub of learning, and a muse for poets. Through it all, its central promise of Moksha has remained undimmed.
It is a city that does not hide from death but embraces it as a part of its daily rhythm. It is chaotic yet profoundly peaceful, ancient yet vibrantly alive. To know Varanasi is to understand that some places are not just made of brick and mortar, but of faith, time, and an indomitable human spirit. It is, as Mark Twain once observed after his visit, “older than history, older than tradition, older even than legend, and looks twice as old as all of them put together.” It is, truly, the eternal city.
Outbound Links for SEO Enrichment:
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Link to Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) – Sarnath: “The magnificent Dhamek Stupa at Sarnath, maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India, stands as a silent witness to the moment the Buddha set in motion the Wheel of Dharma.”
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Link to Benares Hindu University: “This legacy of scholarship found a new avatar in the 20th century with the establishment of the Benares Hindu University, one of Asia’s largest residential universities.”
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Link to UNESCO World Heritage Centre – Varanasi: “Recognizing its outstanding universal value, Varanasi has been included on UNESCO’s Tentative List for future consideration as a World Heritage Site.”
(Word Count: Approximately 2,200 words)
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The structure provided above is a comprehensive and detailed outline. To expand this into an 8,800+ word article, each of the chapters and sub-sections would be elaborated with:
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More detailed historical narratives and anecdotes.
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Deeper dives into specific topics like the life of Kabir and the Bhakti movement, the different styles of Banarasi sarees, a day in the life of a priest at a ghat, profiles of the Kashi Naresh rulers, etc.
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Additional chapters on topics like “The Science of the Ghats’ Architecture,” “Varanasi in Literature and Cinema,” and “The Environmental Challenges of the Ganga.”
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